Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• Tailored crystallinity and defect engineering in ultrathin solid-state electrolytes enable enhanced nanoscale ion transport. • Chemically stable and conformal interfaces mitigate interfacial failure and space charge effects in microbattery architectures. • Spatial atomic layer deposition and scalable vapor-phase strategies enable 3D integration and monolithic interfacing of thin-film microbatteries with internet of things device platforms. • Vapor deposition techniques are pivotal for fabricating high-performance thin-film microbatteries, addressing challenges in materials innovation, interface optimization, and scalable manufacturing.
Abstract
The rapid proliferation of microelectronics, coupled with the advent of the internet of things (IoT) era, has created an urgent demand for miniaturized, integrable, and reliable on-chip energy storage systems. All-solid-state thin-film microbatteries (TFMBs), distinguished by their intrinsic safety, compact design, and compatibility with microfabrication techniques, have emerged as promising candidates to power next-generation IoT devices. Nevertheless, in contrast to the well-established development of conventional lithium-ion batteries, the advancement of TFMBs remains at an early stage, facing persistent challenges in materials innovation, interface optimization, and scalable manufacturing. This review critically examines the pivotal role of vapor deposition technologies, including magnetron sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, thermal/electron-beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, and atomic layer deposition, in the fabrication and performance modulation of TFMBs. We systematically summarize recent progress in thin-film electrodes and solid-state electrolytes, with particular emphasis on how deposition parameters dictate crystallinity, lattice orientation, and ionic transport in functional layers. Furthermore, we highlight strategies for solid–solid interface engineering, three-dimensional structural design, and multifunctional integration to enhance capacity retention, cycling stability, and interfacial compatibility. Looking ahead, TFMBs are expected to evolve toward multifunctional platforms, exhibiting mechanical flexibility, optical transparency, and hybrid energy-harvesting compatibility, thereby meeting the heterogeneous energy requirements of future IoT ecosystems. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on vapor-phase-enabled TFMB technologies, delivering both theoretical insights and technological guidelines for the scalable realization of high-performance microscale power sources.
1. Introduction
The rapid miniaturization of electronic systems is driving a global transition toward the internet of things (IoT), in which densely networked, autonomous microscale devices, including microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, sensors, smart cards, and implantable electronics, are reshaping paradigms of energy storage and delivery at the microscale [1–7]. Such devices impose stringent requirements on power sources, demanding high energy and power densities, long-term reliability, compact footprints, and seamless compatibility with microfabrication processes. Conventional lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) employing liquid electrolytes are intrinsically limited by leakage risks, bulky form factors, and poor compatibility with microsystem integration [8–15].
In contrast, all-solid-state thin-film microbatteries (TFMBs), fabricated through sequential vapor deposition of cathode, solid-state electrolyte (SSE), and anode layers on microdevice-compatible substrates, provide a compelling pathway toward safe, compact, and integrable energy solutions for next-generation microsystems [16–22]. With total thickness below 1 mm and volumes below 1000 mm³ [23], TFMBs offer superior safety, design flexibility, and mechanical robustness, rendering them highly attractive for on-chip applications ranging from IoT terminals and biomedical implants to flexible electronics and aerospace platforms [24–29].
Among the enabling technologies for TFMB fabrication, vapor-phase deposition techniques, including magnetron sputtering (MS), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), thermal and e-beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and atomic layer deposition (ALD), play a pivotal role [30–40].
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Mingming Zheng, Xinrui Xu, Xiaofei Wang, Haibin Lin, Changmin Hou, Mustafa Khan, Jinlong Zhu, Songbai Han (2026). Vapor Deposition Engineering for Thin-Film Microbatteries: From Nanoscale Ionics to Interface-Integrated Architectures. Nano-Micro Letters. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-02002-w
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are thin-film microbatteries (TFMBs)?
Thin-film microbatteries are all-solid-state energy storage devices fabricated by sequentially depositing cathode, electrolyte, and anode layers as thin films on substrates. They offer compact size, safety, and compatibility with microfabrication, making them ideal for powering microelectronics and IoT devices.
Why are vapor deposition techniques important for TFMBs?
Vapor deposition techniques such as magnetron sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, and atomic layer deposition allow precise control over film thickness, crystallinity, and composition, which are critical for optimizing ionic transport and interfacial stability in TFMBs.
What are the main challenges in TFMB development?
Key challenges include materials innovation, interface optimization, and scalable manufacturing. Specifically, achieving high ionic conductivity in solid electrolytes and maintaining stable solid–solid interfaces are major hurdles.
How do TFMBs compare to conventional lithium-ion batteries?
Unlike conventional LIBs with liquid electrolytes, TFMBs are safer (no leakage), more compact, and better suited for on-chip integration. However, they are still at an early stage and face challenges in performance and manufacturing scalability.
What future developments are expected for TFMBs?
TFMBs are expected to evolve into multifunctional platforms with mechanical flexibility, optical transparency, and hybrid energy-harvesting capabilities, meeting the diverse energy needs of future IoT ecosystems.
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