Thermal–environmental effects on degradation of railway ballast aggregates: a climate change perspective

• • Sulfate attacks reduce ballast durability by an average of 50%, the most severe stressor, necessitating sulfate-resistant aggregate selection or protective measures in affected regions. • • Freeze–thaw cycles cause a 20% average durability loss, highlighting the need for frost-resistant ballast in cold climates to prevent accelerated breakdown. • • Extreme cold (−20°C) and warm (+100°C) temperatures degrade durability by 40% and 35%, respectively, indicating that both ends of the thermal spectrum compromise aggregate integrity. • • Empirical formulations derived from the data enable prediction of degradation indices (e.g., Los Angeles abrasion, micro-Deval wear) under specific thermal and environmental conditions, facilitating proactive maintenance scheduling.