Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• No liquid metal embrittlement was observed in any of the three 316L steels tested in LBE at 350 °C, regardless of processing method. • LPBF 316L steel achieved the highest yield strength (420–435 MPa) owing to nanosized dislocation cell structures, but exhibited markedly lower ductility (~19%). • PEP 316L steel had the lowest strength due to massive residual micropores, yet maintained ductility comparable to cast 316L (~40–43%). • These findings support the potential use of additively manufactured 316L steels in LBE-cooled fast reactors, while highlighting the critical role of microstructural defects in mechanical performance.
Abstract
In this work, tensile mechanical behavior of 316L steels fabricated by three different processing methods (casting, powder extrusion printing (PEP) and laser powder bed fusion (LPBF)) was studied in the presence of liquid lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) and air at 350 °C. The results show that all three steels tested in LBE are not subjected to evident degradation of tensile elongation to failure and strength compared to those tested in air, suggesting that LME does not occur regardless of the processing methods. The LPBF 316L steel exhibits the highest yield strength (420−435 MPa), followed by casting 316L (~242 MPa) and PEP 316L (146−165 MPa). Ultimate tensile strength of three steels is comparable and ranges from 427 to 485 MPa. The PEP and casting 316L steels have similar total elongation to failure (i.e., 40.0%−43.8%), whereas this property decreases markedly to 18.6%−19.5% for the LPBF 316L steel. The superior strength and relatively low ductility of the LPBF 316L steel can be attributed to nanosized dislocations trapped at cell structures which can produce a remarkable strengthening effect to the steel matrix. By contrast, due to massive residual micropores, the PEP 316L steel has the lowest strength.
1. Introduction
Liquid lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE, Pb44.5Bi55.5, wt%) possesses appealing neutronic and thermohydraulic properties, such as limited neutron moderation and absorption, low melting point, high boiling point, good heat-transfer capability, and chemical inertness with water and air. Therefore, this heavy liquid metal has long been regarded as a promising coolant fluid used in Gen IV fast nuclear reactors [1, 2].
Nevertheless, LBE is quite corrosive to commercial steels, including austenitic stainless steels and ferritic/martensitic (F/M) steels. This drawback obstructs the deployment of LBE-cooled fast reactors. Depending on the exposure conditions, steels can suffer from various types of corrosion, including oxidation [3, 4], dissolution [5–10], “pitting” and erosion [3, 5, 11–14]. In addition to the corrosion issue, liquid metal embrittlement (LME) is also a technical concern. This phenomenon can cause premature fracture of normally ductile metallic materials when in contact with liquid metals.
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WEN Tao, ZHONG Zhi-huai, ZHU Sai-sai, ZHOU Man-man, WANG Pei, CHAI Lin-jiang, LIU Guo-qing, PANG Bo, GONG Xing (2025). Tensile mechanical behavior of additively manufactured 316L austenitic stainless steels in liquid lead-bismuth eutectic and in air. Journal of Central South University. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-025-6030-3
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Frequently Asked Questions
Which 316L steel processing method gave the highest strength in this study?
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) 316L steel exhibited the highest yield strength (420–435 MPa), attributed to nanosized dislocations trapped at cell structures that produce a remarkable strengthening effect.
Did liquid lead-bismuth eutectic cause embrittlement of 316L steels at 350 °C?
No evident degradation of tensile elongation or strength was observed in LBE compared to air, suggesting that liquid metal embrittlement does not occur for the casting, PEP, or LPBF 316L steels under these conditions.
Why did PEP 316L steel show the lowest strength?
The powder extrusion printing (PEP) 316L steel contained massive residual micropores, which weakened the material and resulted in the lowest strength among the three steels.
What are the typical elongation values for the different 316L steels?
PEP and casting 316L steels had total elongation to failure of 40.0%–43.8%, while LPBF 316L steel showed markedly lower ductility at 18.6%–19.5%.
What is the potential application of these findings?
The results support the use of additively manufactured 316L stainless steels as structural materials for liquid lead-bismuth eutectic-cooled fast reactors, while emphasizing that processing-induced defects significantly influence mechanical performance.
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