Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• Systematically expounds functional design of reported triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). • Conducts an extensive comparison of power conversion efficiencies of TENGs in air and water wave environments. • Comprehensively assesses existing challenges and delineates future pathways for development. • Provides valuable perspectives for ongoing research and advancement of TENG technology.
Abstract
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) offer a self-sustaining power solution for marine regions abundant in resources but constrained by energy availability. Since their pioneering use in wave energy harvesting in 2014, nearly a decade of advancements has yielded nearly thousands of research articles in this domain. Researchers have developed various TENG device structures with diverse functionalities to facilitate their commercial deployment. Nonetheless, there is a gap in comprehensive summaries and performance evaluations of TENG structural designs. This paper delineates six innovative structural designs, focusing on enhancing internal device output and adapting to external environments: high space utilization, hybrid generator, mechanical gain, broadband response, multi-directional operation, and hybrid energy-harvesting systems. We summarize the prevailing trends in device structure design identified by the research community. Furthermore, we conduct a meticulous comparison of the electrical performance of these devices under motorized, simulated wave, and real marine conditions, while also assessing their sustainability in terms of device durability and mechanical robustness. In conclusion, the paper outlines future research avenues and discusses the obstacles encountered in the TENG field. This review aims to offer valuable perspectives for ongoing research and to advance the progress and application of TENG technology.
1. Introduction
The global population surge has heightened the demand for traditional energy sources like oil, natural gas, and coal [1]. Since 1990, the global population has tripled, while energy consumption has increased tenfold, from 1,000 to 10,000 GW [2]. Just 10% of the world's population consumes 90% of fossil fuel resources, which are finite and non-renewable, exacerbating resource depletion and environmental pollution. As a result, global energy policies are increasingly shifting toward renewable sources. Among these, ocean energy stands out as one of the most promising options. It encompasses various forms, including tidal, ocean current, wave, temperature gradient, and salinity gradient energy [3]. Wave energy, in particular, is available 90% of the time, compared to just 20% to 30% for solar and wind energy [4]. Its energy density can reach up to 30 kW m−1, which is ten times that of solar and five times that of wind energy. Efficient utilization of these renewable sources depends on both their energy density and the methods employed to harness them.
In 2012, Zhonglin Wang introduced the triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), which converts small mechanical energy into electrical energy via triboelectrification and electrostatic induction [5–8]. TENGs are now widely used in micro-nano-energy [9, 10], self-powered sensing [11–13], high-voltage power sources [14], and blue energy [15]. Their low mass, cost-effectiveness, and high efficiency make them ideal for harvesting low-frequency mechanical energy [16–18], such as from water waves [19], while traditional electromagnetic generators (EMGs) are better suited for high-frequency energy [3, 20]. Since its debut in water wave energy harvesting in 2014, the technology has advanced significantly [21–23]. Owing to their outstanding performance and promising potential, the annual number of publications on TENGs for water wave energy harvesting has exhibited a steady and sustained growth trend (Fig. 1a). A keyword analysis of more than 600 relevant publications (Fig. 1b) reveals prominent terms such as "nanogenerator" and "blue energy," with emerging research hotspots including "triboelectrification," "hybrid nanogenerator," "structural design," "low frequency," "power management circuit," "marine environment," and "large scale." It can be inferred that the continuous research into TENG principles, electrical output, and aquatic performance is essential for commercialization.
The rapid development of TENG technology has been well documented in numerous high-quality reviews covering various
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Ying Lou, Mengfan Li, Aifang Yu, Junyi Zhai, Zhong Lin Wang (2025). From Wave Energy to Electricity: Functional Design and Performance Analysis of Triboelectric Nanogenerators. Nano-Micro Letters. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01811-3
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) and how do they work?
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are devices that convert small mechanical energy into electrical energy through the combined effects of triboelectrification and electrostatic induction. They are particularly effective for harvesting low-frequency mechanical energy, such as water waves, making them ideal for blue energy applications.
What are the six innovative structural designs of TENGs discussed in the paper?
The paper delineates six innovative structural designs: high space utilization, hybrid generator, mechanical gain, broadband response, multi-directional operation, and hybrid energy-harvesting systems. These designs aim to enhance internal device output and adapt to external environments.
How do TENGs compare to traditional electromagnetic generators (EMGs) for wave energy harvesting?
TENGs are more suitable for low-frequency mechanical energy harvesting, such as water waves, due to their low mass, cost-effectiveness, and high efficiency at low frequencies. In contrast, EMGs are better suited for high-frequency energy. TENGs offer a complementary approach for capturing wave energy.
What is the significance of the review in advancing TENG technology?
This review provides a comprehensive summary and performance evaluation of TENG structural designs, which was previously lacking. It compares electrical performance under various conditions and assesses sustainability, offering valuable perspectives for ongoing research and commercial deployment.
What are the future research directions and challenges for TENGs in wave energy harvesting?
The paper outlines future research avenues and discusses obstacles such as device durability, mechanical robustness, and power management. It emphasizes the need for large-scale integration and real-world marine testing to advance TENG technology toward commercialization.
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