Engineering Bifunctional Catalytic Microenvironments for Durable and High-Energy-Density Metal–Air Batteries

• Overview of metal–air batteries architecture, reaction mechanisms, and challenges in developing bifunctional air-breathing electrodes. • Comprehensive discussion on engineering the microenvironment chemistry of noble metal-free bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts. • Insights into future research directions for earth-abundant bifunctional catalysts with enhanced performance and durability. • Emphasis on synthesis strategies, microenvironmental modulations, and stabilized systems for efficient zinc– and lithium–air batteries.