Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• A novel combination of 3D printing, phase inversion, and MPECVD enables metal-free growth of B,N-doped carbon nanostructures on polymer-derived substrates, increasing electrochemically active surface area by 20-fold. • The optimized electrodes exhibit up to 180% higher surface area-to-volume ratio and significantly improved mass transport, as guided by computational fluid dynamics simulations. • Electrochemical oxidation of β-blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, propranolol) shows 4.7-, 4-, and 6.5-fold faster degradation rates, respectively, compared to non-optimized analogues. • This catalyst-free, scalable approach offers a sustainable solution for removing emerging contaminants from wastewater, simplifying fabrication and reducing material contamination.
Abstract
This study proposes a novel and sustainable method for fabricating 3D-printed carbon-based electrodes for electrochemical wastewater treatment. We prepared B,N-doped carbon electrodes with hierarchical porosity and a significantly enhanced surface area-to-volume ratio (up to 180%) compared to non-optimized analogues using a synergistic combination of 3D printing, phase inversion, and microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. This process allows the metal-free growth of vertically aligned carbon nanostructures directly onto polymer-derived substrates, resulting in a 20-fold increase in the electrochemically active surface area. Computational fluid dynamics simulations were used to improve mass transport and reduce pressure drop. Electrochemical characterization demonstrated that the optimized electrodes performed significantly better, achieving 4.7-, 4-, and 6.5-fold increases in the degradation rates of atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol, respectively, during electrochemical oxidation. These results highlight the efficacy of the integrated fabrication and simulation approach in producing high-performance electrodes for sustainable wastewater treatment applications.
1. Introduction
Three-dimensional micro-/nanofabrication is a powerful technology for precision applications. While additive manufacturing is cost-effective and widely accessible, it often lacks the necessary nanoscale precision and is restricted by the limited range of compatible thermoplastic polymers. Template-assisted fabrication, which employs 3D-printed polymer scaffolds as molds, provides a novel approach to increasing the range of usable materials [1, 2], enabling customized architectures for energy storage and sensing devices, offering control over electrode geometry, mass loading, and porosity [3, 4]. However, this method can encounter difficulties in controlling surface porosity, which can have a significant impact on the development of materials for advanced electrochemical applications. In these cases, precise porosity control is crucial for efficient mass transport and reaction performance.
The design of sustainable, carbon-based electrodes with hierarchical porosity poses a considerable challenge due to the necessity of compatibility at both the atomic and macroscopic levels. Additionally, achieving different levels of porosity in a controlled manner is challenging [5]. The combination of additive manufacturing and topology optimization presents a viable solution, enabling the fabrication of complex geometries beyond the capabilities of conventional manufacturing while allowing for rapid production and design flexibility. In this regard, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations also play a pivotal role in optimizing flow patterns to ensure efficient reactant distribution and product removal in electrochemical cells [6]. These simulations can guide the design of electrode structures such as microarchitected flow-through electrodes, thereby enhancing power efficiency in energy storage systems [7]. Triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) are repeating structures with zero mean curvature, high surface area-to-volume ratio, and found a place in catalysis-related and heat exchangers applications [8–10]. Indeed, in the context of electrode design, TPMS offers a way to create highly porous and optimized structures that enhance mass transfer performance.
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Iwona Kaczmarzyk, Malgorzata Szopińska, Patryk Sokołowski, Simona Sabbatini, Gabriel Strugala, Jacek Ryl, Gianni Barucca, Per Falås, Robert Bogdanowicz, Mattia Pierpaoli (2025). 3D-Printed Boron-Nitrogen Doped Carbon Electrodes for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment via MPECVD. Nano-Micro Letters. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01827-9
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the novel approach presented in this study?
The study combines 3D printing, phase inversion, and microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD) to fabricate B,N-doped carbon electrodes with hierarchical porosity and enhanced surface area for wastewater treatment.
How does the proposed method improve electrode performance?
The method enables metal-free growth of vertically aligned carbon nanostructures, increasing the electrochemically active surface area by 20-fold. Computational fluid dynamics simulations optimize mass transport, leading to significantly faster degradation rates of β-blockers.
What are the key results of the electrochemical oxidation tests?
The optimized electrodes achieved 4.7-, 4-, and 6.5-fold increases in degradation rates for atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol, respectively, compared to non-optimized analogues.
Why is this method considered sustainable?
The catalyst-free approach simplifies fabrication, reduces potential material contamination, and offers a scalable solution for removing emerging contaminants from wastewater, aligning with sustainable water treatment goals.
What role do computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations play?
CFD simulations were used to optimize electrode design, improving mass transport and reducing pressure drop, which enhances reaction kinetics and overall electrode performance.
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