Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• Integration of 2D transition metal carbides (TiC/WC) into FA0.85MA0.15PbI3 active layers creates conductive networks and passivates grain-boundary defects, reducing trap density from 10^16 to 10^14 cm−3. • WC-engineered active layers deliver a champion power conversion efficiency of 24.25%, outperforming TiC-incorporated (23.74%) and pristine (22.56%) devices. • AL@WC devices retain 86% of initial PCE after 800 h in ambient air (40% RH) under dark conditions and 81% under continuous illumination; N2 storage improves retention to 89% (dark) and 83% (illumination). • The work establishes a scalable PSC paradigm that unifies charge extraction and stabilization, overcoming the traditional efficiency–stability tradeoff for >24% efficient photovoltaics.
Abstract
We introduce an innovative perovskite solar cell (PSC) architecture featuring a multifunctional active layer (AL) of FA0.85MA0.15PbI3 (FA: formamidine, MA: methylamine) integrated with two dimensional (2D) transition metal carbides (TiC/WC). The properties of the chemically reduced WC and TiC were thoroughly validated through structural and morphological analyses. This design significantly enhances the conventional charge-transporting properties of the AL by utilizing conductive carbide networks (conductivity (σ) > 1200 S/cm) and achieving defect passivation at grain boundaries (reducing trap density from 1016 to 1014 cm−3), along with providing intrinsic stability against environmental stressors. Devices constructed with the AL@WC configuration achieved a remarkable power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 24.25%, surpassing both the TiC-incorporated devices (23.74%) and the pristine AL devices (22.56%). Significantly, after 800 h in ambient air conditions (40% relative humidity), the AL@WC device retained 86% of its initial PCE under dark conditions and 81% under continuous illumination. In a nitrogen environment, dark stability measurements indicated a retention rate of 89%, while illumination stability exhibited an 83% retention for the AL@WC, affirming the enhanced protective capabilities and stability provided by the WC-integrated FA0.85MA0.15PbI3 AL configuration. This work establishes a simplified and high-performance PSC paradigm by effectively uniting charge extraction and stabilization within the AL, paving the way for scalable photovoltaics exceeding 24% efficiency and operational stability.
1. Introduction
Organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as highly promising next-generation photovoltaics due to their exceptional power conversion efficiency (25.7%), outstanding optoelectronic properties, and low-cost fabrication [1–2]. Key advantages include a broad light-harvesting range, high absorption coefficient (>10^5 cm−1) [3–4], tunable bandgap, long charge carrier diffusion lengths (µm-scale) [3], high carrier mobility (24–105 cm2·V−1·s−1 for MAPbI3) [3,5], and solution-processability. The efficiency and stability of PSCs are critically influenced by the charge transport layers (CTLs) and defect density in the perovskite active layer [6]. To enhance performance, key strategies include: (1) optimizing the optoelectronic properties of electron/hole transport layers (ETLs/HTLs) or active layers (ALs), and (2) reducing perovskite defects through additive engineering improving crystallization, passivating traps, and boosting charge carrier density [7–9].
To enhance the optoelectronic properties, functionality, and processability of ETLs/HTLs or ALs, two-dimensional (2D) materials such as graphene/reduced graphene oxide (rGO) [10–11], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [12], transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) [13–14], cadmium sulfide [15], MXenes including transition metal carbides (TMCs) [16–17], and black phosphorus [18–19] have been integrated into PSCs. The integration of 2D transition metal carbides (TiC/WC) into FA0.85MA0.15PbI3 (FA: formamidine, MA: methylamine) ALs achieves breakthrough performance in perovskite photovoltaics through three synergistic mechanisms: metallic conductivity networks (sheet resistance < 200 Ω/sq) enabling 25%–30% improved charge extraction [20–22], defect passivation reducing trap densities from 10^16 to 10^14 cm−3 via Pb2+ and halide vacancy compensation [23–24], and enhanced environmental stability demonstrated by >1000-h operation at 85% relative humidity (RH) [25].
The materials’ intrinsic hydrophobicity, combined with exceptional mechanical properties (Young’s modulus > 300 GPa), simultaneously addresses phase segregation and mechanical degradation [26–27]. Device metrics show a power conversion efficiency (PCE) enhancement from 18.2% to 20.8%, with T80 lifetimes extending from 400 to 1200 h under continuous illumination. While challenges remain in doping optimization (0.5wt%–2wt% window) and large-area nanosheet dispersion, this AL design paradigm eliminates traditional efficiency–stability tradeoffs, offering a commercially viable pathway for perovskite photovoltaics through water-processable, fullerene-free fabrication [2].
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Sajjad Hussain, Hailiang Liu, Sayed Zafar Abbas, Iftikhar Hussain, Abdullah A. Al-Kahtani, Naesung Lee, Hyun-Seok Kim, Jungwon Kang, Jongwan Jung, Dhanasekaran Vikraman (2025). Transition metal carbide-engineered active layers for high-efficiency and stable perovskite solar cell. Journal of Mineral Metallurgy and Materials Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-025-3340-2
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the highest power conversion efficiency reported in this study?
The WC-integrated active layer achieved a champion PCE of 24.25%, surpassing TiC-incorporated devices (23.74%) and pristine devices (22.56%).
Which transition metal carbides were used in the perovskite active layer?
Two-dimensional titanium carbide (TiC) and tungsten carbide (WC) were integrated into FA0.85MA0.15PbI3 perovskite active layers.
How does the WC/TiC integration improve perovskite solar cell stability?
The carbides provide conductive networks, passivate grain-boundary defects, and impart intrinsic hydrophobicity, reducing degradation from moisture and environmental stressors. AL@WC devices retained 86% (dark) and 81% (illumination) of initial PCE after 800 h in ambient air.
What mechanisms are responsible for the enhanced charge transport?
Metallic carbide networks with sheet resistance <200 Ω/sq improve charge extraction by 25%–30%, and defect passivation reduces trap density from 10^16 to 10^14 cm−3, leading to more efficient carrier collection.
What is the significance of this active-layer engineering approach?
It unifies charge extraction and stabilization within the active layer, eliminating the traditional efficiency–stability tradeoff and offering a scalable, water-processable, fullerene-free pathway for >24% efficient perovskite photovoltaics.
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