Towards sustainable lunar habitats with ISRU in Chang’E mission: Mechanical–energy evolution and damage mechanisms of LPBF-printed lunar regolith simulate

• LPBF-printed highland lunar regolith simulants exhibit superior mechanical strength (5.79 MPa) and ductility (peak strain 0.13) compared to mare simulants, making them promising for lunar construction. • Wire-cutting introduces defects that reduce strength by ~20% and ductility significantly, highlighting the need for careful post-processing in ISRU manufacturing. • 3D-DIC reveals distinct strain localization patterns (band-type, diffuse, network-type) depending on simulant type and cutting, providing insights into failure mechanisms. • An energy-based damage model, validated experimentally, captures the three-stage energy evolution (elastic storage, progressive dissipation, unstable collapse), offering a predictive tool for lunar habitat structures.