Sensors Innovations for Smart Lithium-Based Batteries: Advancements, Opportunities, and Potential Challenges

• Sensors for smart LiBs are classified into safety monitoring (temperature, pressure, strain, gas, acoustic, magnetic) and performance optimization (optical, electrochemical) categories, enabling early hazard detection and efficient battery management. • Integration of advanced sensor technologies with machine learning and wireless networks enhances real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and thermal runaway prevention in battery management systems. • Nanotechnology and miniaturization drive sensor innovation, improving sensitivity, selectivity, and response time while enabling seamless integration into LiB systems. • Key challenges including miniaturization, power consumption, cost efficiency, and BMS compatibility must be addressed to fully realize the potential of smart LiB sensor technologies.