Rheological behavior and injectability of PEG/glycerol/bioactive glass-based bone grafts incorporating Denosumab

• All PEG/glycerol/45S5 putties exhibited viscoelastic and pseudoplastic behavior with viscosity below 1000 Pa·s, ensuring optimal flow for clinical use. • Injectability exceeded 98% through a 12G cannula, but decreased significantly with smaller cannulas, highlighting the need for careful selection of delivery devices. • Denosumab incorporation preserved viscoelasticity and injectability while shifting flow from pseudoplastic to more Newtonian, reducing viscosity and thixotropy. • The combination of lower Denosumab content and smaller BG particles provided the best balance of injectability and rheological properties, with potential synergistic bioactivity.