• Cold energy accumulation during storage induces formation temperature decline, with heat recovery rate decelerating as the cold domain contracts inward.
• Increasing groundwater velocity enhances thermal regulation efficiency but reduces production temperature; effective radius and thermal power initially increase then decrease.
• Higher injection temperatures slow thermal recovery, and thermal regulation efficiency is more sensitive to permeability and thermal conductivity than other factors.
• Levelized cost of electricity is 0.1203 $/(kWh) during cold storage, with annual profit primarily driven by cooling benefits during heat recovery.