Early-age thermal cracking behavior of high-speed railway bridge piers in plateau regions: Formwork removal recommendations

• Higher binder content slightly increases early-age thermal cracking risk in HSR bridge piers, but this can be offset by using low-heat cements and high-thermal-conductivity formwork. • A novel variable, “representative temperature rise for unit concrete,” integrates binder content, cement type, and formwork type to characterize the pier's inherent thermal property. • Three linear regression models were developed to predict the earliest safe demolding age, enabling engineers to optimize formwork removal timing without complex simulations. • The findings provide practical recommendations for mitigating early-age thermal cracking in high-altitude railway bridge construction, enhancing structural durability and safety.